What Is an אוֹת ʾot? Cain, Rahab, Moses, and Shabbat

Joshua sends two spies to gather intelligence on the Canaanite city of Jericho. Rahab, a local prostitute, shelters them from the city’s authorities.^[1] Before they escape, she pleads for the safety of her family when Israel attacks the city:

‏^{יהושׁע ב:יב} וְעַתָּה הִשָּׁבְעוּ נָא לִי בַּי־הוָה כִּי עָשִׂיתִי עִמָּכֶם חָסֶד וַעֲשִׂיתֶם גַּם אַתֶּם עִם בֵּית אָבִי חֶסֶד וּנְתַתֶּם לִי אוֹת אֱמֶת.

^{Josh 2:12} “Now then, swear to me by YHWH, for I have dealt kindly with you, that you, in turn, will deal kindly with my father’s household. Give me an אוֹת אֱמֶת (ʾot ʾemet).^[2]

What does she mean by אוֹת אֱמֶת? The noun אוֹת appears more than seventy times in the Hebrew Bible and is traditionally understood to denote a “sign,” often of a miraculous nature. The standard lexicons list an array of definitions revolving around this meaning, such as “sign confirming the truth of an earlier statement,” “distinguishing mark,” “warning sign, deterrent,” “omen, foretelling the future,” and so on.^[3] Thus, the NJPS translation renders Rahab’s אוֹת אֱמֶת as “a reliable sign,” the NRSVue offers “a sign of good faith,” and the KJV translates it as “a true token.”

Yet, despite Rahab’s seemingly explicit request for a sign, the spies mention no sign in their reply granting her a conditional promise of protection if she does not divulge their plan (v. 14; more on this later). Nor is a sign mentioned during the account of Jericho’s conquest in the following chapter.

The Crimson Cord?

The Septuagint attempts to solve this problem by identifying the אוֹת that Rahab requests from the spies with the crimson cord she later hangs from her window. In the MT, the spies instruct Rahab to display the cord to protect her and her family:

‏^{יהושׁע ב:יח} הִנֵּה אֲנַחְנוּ בָאִים בָּאָרֶץ אֶת תִּקְוַת חוּט הַשָּׁנִי הַזֶּה תִּקְשְׁרִי בַּחַלּוֹן אֲשֶׁר הוֹרַדְתֵּנוּ בוֹ וְאֶת אָבִיךְ וְאֶת אִמֵּךְ וְאֶת אַחַיִךְ וְאֵת כָּל בֵּית אָבִיךְ תַּאַסְפִי אֵלַיִךְ הַבָּיְתָה.

^{Josh 2:18} We are entering the land; you shall tie this line of crimson cord in the window through which you let us down, and you shall gather into your house your father and mother, your brothers, and all your family.

The Septuagint renders its Hebrew source as:

^{LXX Josh 2:18} Look, we are entering a part of the city, and you shall set the sign (σημεῖον); this crimson cord you shall tie in the window through which you let us down, and you shall gather to yourself, into your house, your father and your mother and your brothers and all your father’s family.^[4]

This interpretation of the cord as the spies’ אוֹת falters on several points:

• The crimson cord appears in a separate scene from the אוֹת.
• It serves not as a token of good faith, but as a marker to identify Rahab’s house so that it would be spared during the attack.
• The cord appears to already be in Rahab’s possession—there is no suggestion that the spies gave it to her.
• Rahab is the one who sets up the putative sign.

Tamar’s Cord from Judah

Irving Binik connects this episode to Judah giving Tamar a cord and seal as a pledge of payment for her services as a prostitute:^[5]

^{בראשׁית לח:יח} וַיֹּאמֶר מָה הָעֵרָבוֹן אֲשֶׁר אֶתֶּן לָּךְ וַתֹּאמֶר חֹתָמְךָ וּפְתִילֶךָ וּמַטְּךָ אֲשֶׁר בְּיָדֶךָ וַיִּתֶּן לָּהּ וַיָּבֹא אֵלֶיהָ וַתַּהַר לוֹ.

^{Gen 38:18} He said, “What pledge shall I give you?” She replied, “Your signet and your cord and the staff that is in your hand.” So he gave them to her and went in to her, and she conceived by him.

The comparison, however, breaks down upon closer inspection. Tamar explicitly requests the pledge (v. 17) and receives it immediately. Rahab, by contrast, never asks for a pledge, and the cord is only mentioned at the conclusion of the spies’ dealings with her—not in the context of her original request.

Rahab’s Request for an Oath

Like Tamar, Rahab’s request is addressed immediately and fully. Rahab’s plea is for the protection of her family:

‏^{יהושׁע ב:יב} וְעַתָּה הִשָּׁבְעוּ נָא לִי בַּי־הוָה כִּי עָשִׂיתִי עִמָּכֶם חָסֶד וַעֲשִׂיתֶם גַּם אַתֶּם עִם בֵּית אָבִי חֶסֶד וּנְתַתֶּם לִי אוֹת אֱמֶת. ^ב:יג וְהַחֲיִתֶם אֶת אָבִי וְאֶת אִמִּי וְאֶת אַחַי וְאֶת אַחוֹתַי [אַחְיוֹתַי] וְאֵת כָּל אֲשֶׁר לָהֶם וְהִצַּלְתֶּם אֶת נַפְשֹׁתֵינוּ מִמָּוֶת.

^{Josh 2:12} “Now then, swear to me by YHWH, for I have dealt kindly with you, that you, in turn, will deal kindly with my father’s household. Give me an אוֹת אֱמֶת; ^2:13 spare my father and mother, my brothers and sisters, and all their property, and rescue our lives from death.”

The spies’ response reflects the two elements of Rahab’s request—חֶסֶד (kindness) and אֱמֶת (faithfulness):

^{יהושׁע ב:יד} וַיֹּאמְרוּ לָהּ הָאֲנָשִׁים נַפְשֵׁנוּ תַחְתֵּיכֶם לָמוּת אִם לֹא תַגִּידוּ אֶת דְּבָרֵנוּ זֶה וְהָיָה בְּתֵת יְ־הוָה לָנוּ אֶת הָאָרֶץ וְעָשִׂינוּ עִמָּךְ חֶסֶד וֶאֱמֶת.

^{Josh 2:14} The men said to her, “Our life for yours, even to the death! If you do not divulge this plan of ours, then when YHWH gives us the land, we will deal kindly and faithfully with you.”

The spies’ guarantee directly addresses Rahab’s request, which suggests that אוֹת אֱמֶת should be understood not as a “reliable sign,” but as a “reliable promise.”^[6]

This interpretation is reinforced by the fact that when the spies later refer to their agreement with Rahab (v. 20), they describe it as a שְׁבוּעָה—an oath—without any mention of a sign or token:

^{יהושׁע ב:כ} וְאִם תַּגִּידִי אֶת דְּבָרֵנוּ זֶה וְהָיִינוּ נְקִיִּם מִשְּׁבֻעָתֵךְ אֲשֶׁר הִשְׁבַּעְתָּנוּ.

^{Josh 2:20} “But if you tell this business of ours, then we shall be released from this oath that you made us swear to you.”

An Akkadian Cognate

Evidence from Akkadian supports the idea that אוֹת has a second core meaning alongside “sign.” The cognate noun ittu can mean either “signal” or “agreement” and is used in the context of requests or instructions. For example, in the Epic of Gilgamesh, when Gilgamesh seeks out the survivor of the great flood, ittu refers to a road marker: “Which is the road to Utnapištim? What is its marker (itta-ša)?”^[7] But in an Old Assyrian letter from Kanesh (mod. Kültepe, ca. 1950–1850 B.C.E.) the term refers to an agreement: “You will pay 10 mina per your (written) agreement (ettī-ka).”^[8]

This broader semantic range—encompassing both visual markers and verbal commitments—likely existed in early Hebrew as well, but was gradually eclipsed as “sign” became the dominant sense of the word.

Supporting evidence can also be found in the Hebrew verb אות, as well as in ancient Hebrew inscriptions, both of which appear to suggest associations with declarations or instructions.^[9] Thus, for example, when Jacob’s sons agree to the marriage between their sister Dinah and Shechem, they state:

^{בראשׁית לד:טו} אַךְ בְּזֹאת נֵאוֹת לָכֶם אִם תִּהְיוּ כָמֹנוּ לְהִמֹּל לָכֶם כָּל זָכָר.

^{Gen 34:15} Only on this condition will we consent to you: that you will become as we are and every male among you be circumcised.^[10]

This understanding of אוֹת as a spoken assurance helps to explain other puzzling biblical passages as well.

The “Mark” of Cain and Other Examples

One of the most debated examples of אוֹת is the enigmatic “אוֹת of Cain,” usually rendered as the “mark” or “sign” of Cain. In the dialogue between YHWH and Cain following the first fratricide, Cain expresses fear that he will be killed by others seeking to avenge Abel’s death. YHWH responds:

^{בראשׁית ד:טו} וַיֹּאמֶר לוֹ יְ־הוָה לָכֵן כָּל הֹרֵג קַיִן שִׁבְעָתַיִם יֻקָּם וַיָּשֶׂם יְ־הוָה לְקַיִן אוֹת לְבִלְתִּי הַכּוֹת אֹתוֹ כָּל מֹצְאוֹ.

^{Gen 4:15} Then YHWH said to him, “Not so! Whoever kills Cain will suffer a sevenfold vengeance.” And YHWH put a sign on Cain, so that no one who came upon him would kill him.

The passage provides no indication of what the אוֹת actually was. Most traditional and modern scholars presume that Cain was physically marked in some way. This assumption already appears in Genesis Rabbah, which suggests a bodily deformity:

^{בראשית רבה כב:יב} אַבָּא יוֹסֵי בֶּן קֵסָרִי אָמַר קֶרֶן הִצְמִיחַ לוֹ.

^{Gen Rab 22:12} Abba Yosei ben Kesari said: “He [God] caused a horn to grow on him.”

Other traditions propose skin discoloration, such as darkening or bleaching.^[11] Some scholars, recognizing the absence of any specific sign in the text, have suggested that the אוֹת was not physical—perhaps a mnemonic sign denoting divine protection.^[12]

The problem of identifying the אוֹת dissolves, however, if it denotes a promise or assurance: “YHWH made a promise (וַיָּשֶׂם...אוֹת) to Cain that none who finds him will kill him.”

The “Sign” that YHWH Sent Moses

When Moses asks God, “who am I that you send me to confront Pharaoh,” God responds:

^{שׁמות ג:יב} וַיֹּאמֶר כִּי אֶהְיֶה עִמָּךְ וְזֶה לְּךָ הָאוֹת כִּי אָנֹכִי שְׁלַחְתִּיךָ בְּהוֹצִיאֲךָ אֶת הָעָם מִמִּצְרַיִם תַּעַבְדוּן אֶת הָאֱלֹהִים עַל הָהָר הַזֶּה.

^{Exod 3:12} He said, “I will be with you; and this shall be the sign for you that it is I who sent you: when you have brought the people out of Egypt, you shall worship God on this mountain.”

Rashi (ad loc.) and others understand the sign to refer back to the burning bush as proof that Moses’ commission is authentic.^[13] Their explanation, however, does not cohere with the second part of the verse, which speaks of future worship upon the selfsame mountain.^[14] This problem is resolved if אוֹת is not a sign, but a promise.

Shabbat: A “Sign” between Parties

When YHWH establishes the Sabbath Law at Sinai, He instructs Moses:

^{שׁמות לא:יג} וְאַתָּה דַּבֵּר אֶל בְּנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל לֵאמֹר אַךְ אֶת שַׁבְּתֹתַי תִּשְׁמֹרוּ כִּי אוֹת הִוא בֵּינִי וּבֵינֵיכֶם לְדֹרֹתֵיכֶם לָדַעַת כִּי אֲנִי יְ־הוָה מְקַדִּשְׁכֶם.

^{Exod 31:13} You yourself are to speak to the Israelites, “You shall surely keep my Sabbaths, for this is a sign between me and you throughout your generations, given in order that you may know that I, YHWH, sanctify you.”^[15]

The meaning of a sign between parties is inexplicable; the text describes a mutual promise—a pact. Thus, the phrase is better rendered “this is a pact between me and you.”

The “Sign” of a Pregnant Young Woman

When Isaiah reassures King Ahaz of Judah that YHWH will protect Judah from the threats of Aram and Israel, he says:

^{ישׁעיה ז:יד} לָכֵן יִתֵּן אֲדֹנָי הוּא לָכֶם אוֹת הִנֵּה הָעַלְמָה הָרָה וְיֹלֶדֶת בֵּן וְקָרָאת שְׁמוֹ עִמָּנוּ אֵל.

^{Isa 7:14} Therefore the Lord himself will give you a sign. Look, the young woman is with child and shall bear a son, and shall name him Immanuel.

The pregnancy of a young woman, surely a very common occurrence, is not a sign or miracle but a promise that YHWH will be with Judah.

The expectation of a wondrous sign may have influenced the Septuagint’s surprising translation of עַלְמָה, “young woman,” as παρθένος, “virgin”—a virgin giving birth would certainly be more miraculous than a young woman doing so! This interpretation, found in the LLX, was the source for the opening of the gospel of Matthew (1:20–25)—the New Testament writers knew the Hebrew Bible in Greek—and this rendering contributed to the development of the Christian doctrine of the Virgin Birth.^[16]

Searching for Signs in Vain

While a few scholars have acknowledged that אוֹת may refer to a pronouncement in specific cases—typically due to contextual constraints^[17]—this meaning should be recognized as part of the word’s fundamental semantic range. The connection to speech and assurance reflects a shared Semitic heritage, the memory of which gradually faded among speakers of Hebrew, leaving interpreters searching for signs where none were intended.