Reversing Biblical Stereotypes of Women: The Book of Ruth

^{משנה אבות ה:כב} הֲפֹךְ בָּהּ וַהֲפֹךְ בָּהּ, דְּכֹלָּא בָהּ.

^{m. Pirkei Avot 5:22} Turn it over and over, for everything is in it.^[1]

Ben Bag Bag, an early Tanna (Mishnaic rabbi), understood this maxim to mean that the Bible should be studied again and again, for it is relevant to all areas of life. Applying this maxim and its message to the book of Ruth: “Read it and re-read it” to uncover literary insights which present a different story—“for everything is in it.”

Typical Biblical Stories

Where does the book of Ruth stand in relation to the typical biblical story? The main characters in biblical stories are generally men. Although women appear in the patriarchal stories, a man always stands at center stage, and the woman is defined in relation to him. The head of the biblical family or household is male.

Genealogical lists in the Torah generally record fathers and sons; the appearance of women in such lists—such as Naamah, the sister of Tubal-Cain (Gen 4:22), or Dinah, daughter of Jacob (Gen 30:21)—is exceptional.

It is easy to fit the book of Ruth into this conventional patriarchal narrative framework. Indeed, a man is mentioned first there and occupies the central role:

^{רות א:א} וַיְהִי בִּימֵי שְׁפֹט הַשֹּׁפְטִים וַיְהִי רָעָב בָּאָרֶץ וַיֵּלֶךְ אִישׁ מִבֵּית לֶחֶם יְהוּדָה לָגוּר בִּשְׂדֵי מוֹאָב הוּא וְאִשְׁתּוֹ וּשְׁנֵי בָנָיו.

^{Ruth 1:1} In the days when the chieftains ruled, there was a famine in the land; and a man went from Bethlehem in Judah to reside in the fields of Moab—he, his wife, and his two sons.

In this reading, the plot concerns the unfortunate wives of the man, Elimelech, and his two sons, Mahlon and Chilion; the three women lose their husbands and are left without a home or provider.

The centrality of males continues later in the book: redemption comes in the form of Boaz, אִישׁ גִּבּוֹר חַיִל, “a man of valor” (2:1) and גֹאֵל, “a redeemer” (3:9) who establishes a household for Ruth and Naomi. And the book concludes with a typical male genealogy, leading to King David (4:18–22).

Thus, the story initially unfolds in typical biblical style. Yet a close reading of the opening verses offers another possibility. Note how the death of Elimelech and his two sons emphasizes that Naomi is left behind:

^{רות א:ג} וַיָּמָת אֱלִימֶלֶךְ אִישׁ נָעֳמִי וַתִּשָּׁאֵר הִיא וּשְׁנֵי בָנֶיהָ.

^{Ruth 1:3} Elimelech, Naomi’s husband, died, and she was left with her two sons.

When the sons die, we read again that she is left behind:

^{רות א:ה} וַיָּמוּתוּ גַם שְׁנֵיהֶם מַחְלוֹן וְכִלְיוֹן וַתִּשָּׁאֵר הָאִשָּׁה מִשְּׁנֵי יְלָדֶיהָ וּמֵאִישָׁהּ.

^{Ruth 1:5} And the two, Mahlon and Chilion, also died, and the woman was left without her two children and her husband.

This phrasing serves to signal that Naomi is the sole survivor of the family, hence she is the one who will stand at the center of the narrative from here on in, moving quickly from victim to initiator.^[2]

Moreover, the author has already hinted at Naomi’s central role, though we may not have taken notice. In the announcement וַיָּמָת אֱלִימֶלֶךְ אִישׁ נָעֳמִי, “Elimelech, Naomi’s husband, died” (1:3), the mention that he is Naomi’s husband seems redundant. Rashi, following the Talmud (b. Sanh 22b), explains that the person most affected by a man’s death is his wife:

^{רש׳׳י, רות א:ג} איש נעמי – למה נאמר? מכאן אמרו: אין איש מת אלא לאשתו.⁠

^{Rashi, Ruth 1:3} “Naomi’s husband” – Why is this said? From here comes the saying, “A man dies only for his wife.”

The mention of “Naomi’s husband” thus highlights that the central character, Elimelech, has died, leaving only his wife Naomi to mourn his passing.

From the literary point of view, however, the phrase “Naomi’s husband” does not elevate Elimelech. Quite the opposite; his identity derives from her. As a defining description of Elimelech, he is but a secondary character; the primary character is Naomi, who shall stand at the center of the story.

Exposition and Plot

The first five verses about Elimelech’s death serve as the exposition, presenting the initial particulars of the story before the actual plot begins: who are the characters, their place, time, and given situation. The story proper begins in the next verse, with Naomi’s return home:

^{רות א:ו} וַתָּקָם הִיא וְכַלֹּתֶיהָ וַתָּשָׁב מִשְּׂדֵי מוֹאָב כִּי שָׁמְעָה בִּשְׂדֵה מוֹאָב כִּי פָקַד יְ־הוָה אֶת עַמּוֹ לָתֵת לָהֶם לָחֶם.

^{Ruth 1:6} She rose, together with her daughters-in-law, and returned from the fields of Moab; for in the fields of Moab she had heard that YHWH had taken note of His people and given them food.

Compare this opening with the beginning of Exodus, וַיָּקָם מֶלֶךְ חָדָשׁ עַל מִצְרָיִם, “A new king arose over Egypt” (Exod 1:8). In both cases, and many others, the verb קָם, “to arise,” signals the “real” beginning of a plot, and the verb should not be rendered according to its literal meaning, “to stand up.”^[3]

Literary Devices

From this point onward, the book of Ruth proves to be neither simple, as is often claimed, nor obvious, but complex and even revolutionary.

Mother’s, Not Father’s, House

For example, Naomi urges her daughters-in-law not to accompany her to Judah, but to return home to their mothers’ houses:

^{רות א:ח} וַתֹּאמֶר נָעֳמִי לִשְׁתֵּי כַלֹּתֶיהָ לֵכְנָה שֹּׁבְנָה אִשָּׁה לְבֵית אִמָּהּ....

^{Ruth 1:8} But Naomi said to her two daughters-in-law, “Go back, each of you, to her mother’s house....”

Genealogical lists in the Torah read, לְמִשְׁפְּחֹתָם וּלְבֵית אֲבֹתָם, “according to their families, by their fathers’ houses” (Num 4:46). When widowed Tamar returns home, it is to her father’s house:

^{בראשׁית לח:יא} וַיֹּאמֶר יְהוּדָה לְתָמָר כַּלָּתוֹ שְׁבִי אַלְמָנָה בֵית אָבִיךְ עַד יִגְדַּל שֵׁלָה בְנִי כִּי אָמַר פֶּן יָמוּת גַּם הוּא כְּאֶחָיו וַתֵּלֶךְ תָּמָר וַתֵּשֶׁב בֵּית אָבִיהָ.

^{Gen 38:11} Then Judah said to his daughter-in-law Tamar, “Stay as a widow in your father’s house until my son Shelah grows up”—for he thought, “He too might die like his brothers.” So Tamar went to live in her father’s house.

Only here in Ruth does a widowed woman return to her mother’s home, for this is a woman’s story.^[4]

Leaving and Clinging, but Not in Marriage

The book also uses repetition of words from other biblical narratives to develop its message. For example:

^{רות א:יד} וַתִּשֶּׂנָה קוֹלָן וַתִּבְכֶּינָה עוֹד וַתִּשַּׁק עָרְפָּה לַחֲמוֹתָהּ וְרוּת דָּבְקָה בָּהּ.

^{Ruth 1:14} They raised their voices and wept again; Orpah kissed her mother-in-law, but Ruth clung to her.

The verb דָּבְקָה, “she clung,” echoes the creation story in Genesis:

^{בראשׁית ב:כד} עַל כֵּן יַעֲזָב אִישׁ אֶת אָבִיו וְאֶת אִמּוֹ וְדָבַק בְּאִשְׁתּוֹ וְהָיוּ לְבָשָׂר אֶחָד.

^{Gen 2:24} Therefore a man leaves his father and his mother and clings to his wife, and they become one flesh.

In the garden of Eden, such clinging refers to the physical union between husband and wife. In our text, it heralds a relationship of concern, caring and commitment between Ruth and Naomi. This allusion to Genesis 2 is secured by noting that Ruth’s response to Naomi repeats a second verb from that passage:

^{רות א:טז} וַתֹּאמֶר רוּת אַל תִּפְגְּעִי בִי לְעָזְבֵךְ לָשׁוּב מֵאַחֲרָיִךְ כִּי אֶל אֲשֶׁר תֵּלְכִי אֵלֵךְ וּבַאֲשֶׁר תָּלִינִי אָלִין עַמֵּךְ עַמִּי וֵאלֹהַיִךְ אֱלֹהָי.

^{Ruth 1:16} But Ruth replied, “Do not urge me to leave you, to turn back from following you. For where you go, I will go; where you lodge, I will lodge; your people shall be my people, and your God my God.”

What a man is commanded to do to marry in Genesis, Ruth fulfils as a woman; she leaves her parental home and clings to another person. This is an extraordinary path, a reversal of the biblical norm.

Ruth, a New Abraham

The book draws an additional comparison between Ruth and Abraham, based on similar language.^[5] Upon meeting Ruth, Boaz compliments her for leaving her home and coming to a new land:

^{רות ב:יא} וַיַּעַן בֹּעַז וַיֹּאמֶר לָהּ הֻגֵּד הֻגַּד לִי כֹּל אֲשֶׁר עָשִׂית אֶת חֲמוֹתֵךְ אַחֲרֵי מוֹת אִישֵׁךְ וַתַּעַזְבִי אָּבִיךְ וְאִמֵּךְ וְאֶרֶץ מוֹלַדְתֵּךְ וַתֵּלְכִי אֶל עַם אֲשֶׁר לֹא יָדַעַתְּ תְּמוֹל שִׁלְשׁוֹם.

^{Ruth 2:11} Boaz said in reply, “I have been told of all that you did for your mother-in-law after the death of your husband, how you left your father and mother and the land of your birth and came to a people you had not known before.”

The words are reminiscent of Abraham’s initial journey to Canaan:

^{בראשׁית יב:א} וַיֹּאמֶר יְ־הוָה אֶל אַבְרָם לֶךְ לְךָ מֵאַרְצְךָ וּמִמּוֹלַדְתְּךָ וּמִבֵּית אָבִיךָ אֶל הָאָרֶץ אֲשֶׁר אַרְאֶךָּ.

^{Gen 12:1} Now YHWH said to Abram, “Go from your country and your kindred and your father’s house to the land that I will show you.”

Both Abraham and Ruth leave their parental homes and the land of their birth to begin anew.

Biblical Women Cooperating, Not Competing

The use of reversals is a major thematic device in Ruth, evident not only at the level of individual words, but also in the narrative composition itself, as skillfully illustrated by Ilana Pardes (Hebrew University of Jerusalem). In Countertraditions in the Bible: A Feminist Approach, Pardes points out that in biblical narratives, solidarity between women is rare. Relations between Sarah and Hagar, Rachel and Leah, Hannah and Peninnah (Gen 16, 21, 29–30; 1 Sam 1)—all are marked by rivalry, almost always centered on competition for one man’s affection.^[6]

Likewise, we might expect rivalry over Boaz between Naomi and Ruth. Boaz would seem to be a more suitable husband for Naomi, since his response to Ruth’s proposal of marriage suggests that he is an older man:^[7]

^{רות ג:י} וַיֹּאמֶר בְּרוּכָה אַתְּ לַי־הוָה בִּתִּי הֵיטַבְתְּ חַסְדֵּךְ הָאַחֲרוֹן מִן הָרִאשׁוֹן לְבִלְתִּי לֶכֶת אַחֲרֵי הַבַּחוּרִים אִם דַּל וְאִם עָשִׁיר.

^{Ruth 3:10} He exclaimed, “Be blessed of YHWH, daughter! Your latest deed of loyalty is greater than the first, in that you did not go after the young men, whether poor or rich.”

Yet instead of competing for Boaz, Naomi devotes herself entirely to securing Boaz for Ruth, and Ruth chooses Boaz precisely so that he will also provide for Naomi. Each woman seeks the good of the other. This show of חֶסֶד (chesed), “loving-kindness,”^[8] is a reversal of the usual situation.

This show of reciprocal selflessness and concern for one another between the women must have impressed Boaz. After committing to marry Ruth, he sends Ruth home with a gift of grain for Naomi, as Ruth tells her:

‏^{רות ג:יז} וַתֹּאמֶר שֵׁשׁ הַשְּׂעֹרִים הָאֵלֶּה נָתַן לִי כִּי אָמַר אַל תָּבוֹאִי רֵיקָם אֶל חֲמוֹתֵךְ.

^{Ruth 3:17} She said, “He gave me these six measures of barley, saying to me, ‘Do not go back empty-handed to your mother-in-law.’”

These examples point to a theme that runs throughout the entire book of Ruth: it is a story about two women who demonstrate solidarity and initiative in the face of loss and vulnerability. This reversal of biblical feminine stereotypes is divulged to the reader through style and language.

Ruth, Like the Matriarchs, but Better

In the final chapter, we find two references to biblical narratives that take on new meanings in the context of Ruth. First, the elders of Bethlehem bless Boaz with the wish that his new wife, Ruth, be as Rachel and Leah together:

^{רות ד:יא} ...יִתֵּן יְ־הוָה אֶת הָאִשָּׁה הַבָּאָה אֶל בֵּיתֶךָ כְּרָחֵל וּכְלֵאָה אֲשֶׁר בָּנוּ שְׁתֵּיהֶם אֶת בֵּית יִשְׂרָאֵל וַעֲשֵׂה חַיִל בְּאֶפְרָתָה וּקְרָא שֵׁם בְּבֵית לָחֶם.

^{Ruth 4:11} ...“May YHWH make the woman who is coming into your house like Rachel and Leah, both of whom built the house of Israel! Prosper in Ephrathah and perpetuate your name in Bethlehem!”

Rachel and Leah are not invoked as bitter rivals over Jacob, but rather as a unified model for Naomi and Ruth to follow. Presumably Rachel and Leah were chosen because they too were a pair.

Second, the elders of Bethlehem further bless the newlyweds as follows:

^{רות ד:יב} וִיהִי בֵיתְךָ כְּבֵית פֶּרֶץ אֲשֶׁר יָלְדָה תָמָר לִיהוּדָה מִן הַזֶּרַע אֲשֶׁר יִתֵּן יְ־הוָה לְךָ מִן הַנַּעֲרָה הַזֹּאת.

^{Ruth 4:12} “And may your house be like the house of Peretz whom Tamar bore to Judah—through the offspring which YHWH will give you by this young woman.”

The mention of Judah, Peretz, and Tamar directs the reader to the story of the seduction of Judah by his daughter-in-law Tamar, resulting in the birth of illegitimate twins, Peretz and Zerah (Gen 38). Peretz is an ancestor of Boaz (Ruth 4:18–22). Our author means for the reader to contrast Tamar’s seduction of Judah with Ruth’s behavior on the threshing floor. Whereas Tamar achieves her goals of marriage and motherhood by deception, Ruth asks Boaz to marry her. The elders’ blessing serves to highlight the moral standing of Ruth as opposed to the behavior of Tamar.^[9]

Ruth’s and Naomi’s Child, Not Boaz’s

Ruth’s pregnancy and the birth of a child are both expressed in unique language:

^{רות ד:יג} וַיִּקַּח בֹּעַז אֶת רוּת וַתְּהִי לוֹ לְאִשָּׁה וַיָּבֹא אֵלֶיהָ וַיִּתֵּן יְ־הוָה לָהּ הֵרָיוֹן וַתֵּלֶד בֵּן.

^{Ruth 4:13} Boaz married Ruth; she became his wife, and he cohabited with her. YHWH gave her conception and she bore a son.

The notice about Ruth’s conception does not connect the baby to Boaz, its father. In addition, Ruth’s child is said to be “born to Naomi”:

^{רות ד:יז} וַתִּקְרֶאנָה לוֹ הַשְּׁכֵנוֹת שֵׁם לֵאמֹר יֻלַּד בֵּן לְנָעֳמִי וַתִּקְרֶאנָה שְׁמוֹ עוֹבֵד הוּא אֲבִי יִשַׁי אֲבִי דָוִד.

^{Ruth 4:17} And the women neighbors gave him a name, saying, “A son is born to Naomi!” They named him Obed; he was the father of Jesse, father of David.

The two verses reflect the shared efforts of both women throughout this book and their predominance in the story.

An ʾEshet Chayil Meets an ʾIsh Chayil

The scroll’s central message may be summarized in the verses of Proverbs’ woman of valor:

‏^{משׁלי לא:כו} פִּיהָ פָּתְחָה בְחָכְמָה וְתוֹרַת חֶסֶד עַל לְשׁוֹנָהּ.... ^לא:כט רַבּוֹת בָּנוֹת עָשׂוּ חָיִל וְאַתְּ עָלִית עַל כֻּלָּנָה.

^{Prov 31:26} She opens her mouth with wisdom, and the teaching of kindness is on her tongue… ^31:29 Many women have done valiantly, but you surpass them all.

This book is the story of an אֵשֶׁת חַיִל (ʾeshet chayil), “a woman of valor,” as Boaz describes Ruth:

^{רות ג:יא} וְעַתָּה בִּתִּי אַל תִּירְאִי כֹּל אֲשֶׁר תֹּאמְרִי אֶעֱשֶׂה לָּךְ כִּי יוֹדֵעַ כָּל שַׁעַר עַמִּי כִּי אֵשֶׁת חַיִל אָתְּ.

^{Ruth 3:11} And now, daughter, have no fear. I will do in your behalf whatever you ask, for all the elders of my town know what a woman of valor you are.

Boaz himself is an אִישׁ גִּבּוֹר חַיִל (ʾish gibbor chayil), “a man of valor”:

^{רות ב:א} וּלְנָעֳמִי מידע [מוֹדַע] לְאִישָׁהּ אִישׁ גִּבּוֹר חַיִל מִמִּשְׁפַּחַת אֱלִימֶלֶךְ וּשְׁמוֹ בֹּעַז.

^{Ruth 2:1} Now Naomi had a kinsman on her husband’s side, a man of valor, of the family of Elimelech, whose name was Boaz.

This is an attempt at equality in word and deed.^[10] Yet the true virtue here is not strength, Hebrew chayil, but kindness, Hebrew chesed, enacted quietly and persistently.

Ruth performs an act of kindness by leaving her home and country to accompany Naomi. Naomi responds with kindness by seeking security for Ruth. Boaz embodies kindness through his generosity and responsibility to both women. These sets of reciprocal relationships are succinctly captured in a midrash:

^{רות רבה ז:ז} בעז עשה את שלו ורות עשתה את שלה ונעמי עשתה את שלה אמר הקדוש ברוך הוא אף אני אעשה את שלי.

^{Ruth Rabbah 7:7} Boaz did his part, and Ruth did hers, and Naomi did hers; the Holy One, blessed be He, said, “Now I shall do Mine.”

Femininity Redefined

Throughout the scroll, what it is to be a woman in the Bible is redefined—in contrast to Tamar’s deception of Judah (Gen 38) or Peninnah’s taunts against Hannah (1 Sam 1). A woman is kind, ethical, decisive, and creative. These aspects of the book were not seen in pre-modern times, even though they were always embedded in the text, encoded in its language and intertextual echoes. Each generation must uncover what speaks most urgently to it: “Read it and re-read it over again, for everything is in it.”